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Hello,
I think that you are headed in the right direction. What I could suggest is adding some more arguments to the strace command to get a bit more information, for example:
strace -vvv -s 10000 -f ls /root
Also, are you using LDAP? If so check your /var/log/auth.log log as well to see if you have some more information there. This looks like that your Droplet is unable to reach the LDAP server.
Another thing that comes to my mind is that if you’ve recently changed your hostname, if so make sure to update it in your /etc/hosts file as well:
127.0.0.1 localhost YOUR_HOSTNAME
::1 localhost YOUR_HOSTNAME
Let me know how it goes! Regards, Bobby